Action research

Action research
Action research is a a deliberate, solution oriented investigation made by a person or a group. It involves action and research. Action is in the sense that it brings about some changes in the area which action research focus on and research. In the sense that it is a systematic investigation into a problem
The term action research was coined by Kurt lewin

Key points:__
*Action research is a kind of applied research

*It is a a reflective process which help teachers to explore and
 examine aspects of teaching and learning method to take action to change and improve

*it helps educator's to develop practical solutions to address them quickly and effectively

Steps of action research:_
*Title of the study

*Statement of the problem

*Need and significance of the study

*Objectives of the study

*Probable causes of the problem

*Formulation of action hypothesis

*Design of the study

*Analysis of data

*Findings

*Conclusion

Objective or purpose:_

*To improve classroom teaching

*To raise the achievement level of students

*To facilitate suitable atmosphere for effective learning

*To help teachers and administrators to study their problems well

*To develop scientific attitude in teachers

*T0 remedy problems of delinquency and backwardness

*To help School authorities to find out suitable remedial measures..

Example of action research.......

A mathematical teacher at the time of practice and drill works find that some of the students are not able to solve the problems in spite of the fact

Remedial measures:_
* The topic has been taught to them in class
*The problem has already been assigned to them in form of homework for practice
*While checking the home assignment that the teacher has found that they have correctly solved the problem

Advantages of action research...
*It develops an attitude in the teachers
*Teachers can adopt a teaching method and promote all-round development of the people
* It increases achievement level of students
*Curriculum can be effectively developed
*It solves the problem on discipline
*It removes discrepancies among pupils and students
*Solves problems of delinquency and backwardness

Disadvantages:_
*Lack of time
*Validity
*Results are not generalizable
*Range of models and process
*Lack of generalizability
*Lack of repeatability and rigour
*Difficulties in distinguishing between action and research
*Delay in completion of action research due to  wide range of reasons are not rare occurrences

Action research

Action research
Action research is a deliberate, solution-oriented investigation made by a person or a group. It involves action and research. Action is in the sense that it brings about some changes in the area in which action research focus on and research. In the sense that it is a systematic investigation into a problem
The term action research was coined by Kurt Lewin

Key points:__
*Action research is a kind of applied research

*It is a reflective process which helps teachers to explore and
 examine aspects of teaching and learning method to take action to change and improve

*it helps educator's to develop practical solutions to address them quickly and effectively

Steps of action research:_
*Title of the study

*Statement of the problem

*Need and significance of the study

*Objectives of the study

*Probable causes of the problem

*Formulation of action hypothesis

*Design of the study

*Analysis of data

*Findings

*Conclusion

Objective or purpose:_

*To improve classroom teaching

*To raise the achievement level of students

*To facilitate a suitable atmosphere for effective learning

*To help teachers and administrators to study their problems well

*To develop a scientific attitude in teachers

*T0 remedy problems of delinquency and backwardness

*To help School authorities to find out suitable remedial measures...

Descriptive research

https://research-methodology.net/descriptive-research/

Descriptive research is research used to “describe” a situation, subject, behaviour, or phenomenon. It is used to answer questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research question or problem. Descriptive studies are often described as studies that are concerned with finding out “what is”.   It attempts to gather quantifiable information that can be used to statistically analyze a target audience or a particular subject. Description research is used to observe and describe a research subject or problem without influencing or manipulating the variables in any way. Hence, these studies are really correlational or observational, and not truly experimental.  This type of research is conclusive in nature, rather than exploratory.  Therefore, descriptive research does not attempt to answer “why” and is not used to discover inferences, make predictions or establish causal relationships.

Descriptive research is used extensively in social science, psychology and educational research. It can provide a rich data set that often brings to light new knowledge or awareness that may have otherwise gone unnoticed or encountered.  It is particularly useful when it is important to gather information with the disruption of the subjects or when it is not possible to test and measure large numbers of samples.

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Quantitative versus Qualitative:

Quantitative versus Qualitative:
 Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be
expressed in terms of quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or
amount. The various available statistical and econometric methods are adopted
for analysis in such research. Some such includes correlation, regressions and
time series analysis.
On the other hand, Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative
phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects related to or involving quality or
kind. For example, an important type of qualitative research is ‘Motivation
Research’, which investigates into the reasons for human behaviour. The main
aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives and desires of
human beings by using in-depth interviews. The other techniques employed in
such research are story completion tests, sentence completion tests, word
association tests, and other similar projective methods. Qualitative research is
particularly significant in the context of behavioural sciences, which aim at
discovering the underlying motives of human behaviour. Such research helps to
analyse the various factors that motivate human beings to behave in a certain
manner, besides contributing to an understanding of what makes individuals like
or dislike a particular thing. However, it is worth noting that conducting
qualitative research in practice is considered as a difficult task. Hence, while undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced expert
researchers is important.

The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and
properly define the research problem. A researcher should first identify a
problem and formulate it, so as to make it amenable or susceptible to research.
In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered question that a researcher
might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation,

four major types of mixed methods

The four major types of mixed methods designs are the Triangulation Design,
the Embedded Design, the Explanatory Design, and the Exploratory Design.

Triangulation

Triangulation
Synonyms:
Confirming, Reinforcing, Rejecting
Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification from more than two sources. It tests the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments and increases the chance to control, or at least assess, some of the threats or multiple causes influencing our results.
Triangulation is not just about validation but about deepening and widening one’s understanding. It can be used to produce innovation in conceptual framing. It can lead to multi-perspective meta-interpretations.[Triangulation is an] attempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human behaviour by studying it from more than one standpoint? - Cohen and Manion
Types
Denzin (1973, p.301) proposes four basic types of triangulation:
Data triangulation: involves time, space, and persons
Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an investigation
Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical scheme in the interpretation of the phenomenon
Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one option to gather data, such as interviews, observations, questionnaires, and documents.
Reasons for triangulation
Carvalho and White (1997) propose four reasons for undertaking triangulation:
Enriching: The outputs of different informal and formal instruments add value to each other by explaining  different aspects of an issue
Refuting: Where one set of options disproves a hypothesis generated by another set of options.
Confirming: Where one set of options confirms a hypothesis generated by another set of options
Explaining: Where one set of options sheds light on unexpected findings derived from another set of options.
Triangulation to minimize bias
The problem with relying on just one option is to do with bias. There are several types of bias encountered in research, and triangulation can help with most of them.
Measurement bias – Measurement bias is caused by the way in which you collect data. Triangulation allows you to combine individual and group research options to help reduce bias such as peer pressure on focus group participants.
Sampling bias – Sampling bias is when you don’t cover all of the population you’re studying (omission bias) or you cover only some parts because it’s more convenient (inclusion bias). Triangulation combines the different strengths of these options to ensure you getting sufficient coverage.
Procedural bias – Procedural bias occurs when participants are put under some kind of pressure to provide information. For example, doing “vox pop” style interrupt polls might catch the participants unaware and thus affect their answers. Triangulation allows us to combine short engagements with longer engagements where participants have more time to give considered responses.

Sources for Problem Selection

As noted above, it is important that a researchable area has been selected first before locating a research problem or research topic. Four important sources which can facilitate this have been underlined by Koul (2007) discussed as follows.
Professional Literature
One needs to locate the most authentic professional literature in one’s discipline and the area of research. In every discipline and/or area of research, the experienced professors and researchers are aware of the most authentic reference and research literature, and the sources of their availability. These include reference work/books; experiential notes available as monographs or occasional papers or simply teacher notes available at university website; research work published in refereed journals, available as OER, or as research monograph, and problem-based accounts written by teachers, researchers, students, graduates, among others and available as blogs, web postings or experiencial papers published in journals and newspapers. The major sources of such literature include various Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Survey of Educational Research (CASE, MSU/NCERT), Dissertation Abstracts, OER Search Engines. Some of the sites for authentic OER include those of UNESCO and MERLOT, among others. A survey of these literature facilitates location of ‘suggestions for further research’ in those literature which can further ignite the mind of the researcher to ponder over possible research problem and research title. While examining the related research studies, the researcher may also locate and jot down the limitations of research design, sampling procedure as also any contradictory findings which necessitate to re-examine the phenomenon/research problem in different contexts.
Theories
While examining the related and authentic reference works, the researcher may examine description and analysis of theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks which could have been drawn from cognate disciplines of philosophy, psychology, sociology, and the field of education itself. These theoretical frameworks may also suggest and motivate the researcher to proceed exploration of a particular variable or problem area.
Personal Experience
It is all the more essential that the researcher interacts with teachers, peers, and even students to obtain if some area of research or some type of research problems are worth examining further. The researcher may personally encounter sparkling ideas while engaged in various tasks and problems relating to curriculum design, teaching-learning, assessment and evaluation, among others. This could, at the least, lead to conduct of some action-research which every teacher is required to undertake as a reflective practitioner/reflective professional. One’s own developmental work as also those of others get further disseminated in seminars and conferences which one should attend from time to time and tap recent development in the chosen field of research. Another source of encountering authentic and practical experience is interaction with the community and ascertaining any constraints faced by them. This may lead to further crystalisation of a research problem and research investigation.
Socio-Economic-Political-Technological Changes
As we remain alert in respect of what is happening around us, in our country as also globally, we encounter significant changes in social dynamics/social order, emergence of new social issues, economic upheavals in local markets as also in international trade, changes in political dynamics leading to changes in educational policies and regulations, and also changes in technology and especially ICT and social technologies and social networks. These changes both provide for ample research problems to further investigate as also enlighten and motivate the researcher to proceed to conduct a piece of research

Sources of Research Problems

Sources of Research Problems
Ideas for research problems or topics can arise from a range of sources such as personal or professional experience, a theory, the media, or other research studies.
Personal or professional experience
Everyday personal or professional experience may lead us to identify a problem for which we would like a solution. Alternatively, we may encounter a question or questions that we would like to try and answer.
For example, on a personal level, you may prefer the taste of organically produced vegetables and thus wonder if people in general prefer the taste of organically produced vegetables to those produced non-organically. The research topic is a study into taste preferences and the question 'do people in general prefer the taste of organically produced vegetables to those produced non-organically?' Alternatively, for example, as a professional nature reserve warden you may want to encourage the establishment and spread of a particular plant species because you know it is a food source for a rare butterfly. The research problem may be, 'how do I encourage the spread of the plant species of interest?'
Theory
Theories are ideas about how things relate to each other. Theories may be general, commonly held beliefs (such as, domestic cats are the cause of a decline in bird numbers in UK gardens) or more technical ideas (for example, that global warming is causing a change to the timing of the seasonal responses of the flowering cherry tree in the UK).
There are many ways of expressing theories, some are very formal, others are informal. Here are some examples:
• Keynes' statement that ... 'men are disposed as a rule and on average, to increase their consumption as their income increases, but not as much as the increase in their income ...' is a theory.
• The idea that distance learners have different needs than on-campus students is a theory.
• A hunch that crossing two particular strains of maize will produce a more drought-tolerant variety is a theory.
• The assumption that every species has a fundamental niche, is a theory.
Theories may be useful in suggesting interesting questions and generally guiding fieldwork, but should not restrict us from exploring alternative explanations. The end result of the research process is knowledge.
Literature and the media
There are many sources of literature, such as books, journal articles, and newspapers. When searching and reading literature it is possible to encounter gaps in information and knowledge, and problems for which there is currently no solution. These may provide a good basis for research. We are also flooded with information presented by the media, such as television, which again might give rise to research ideas.

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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

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Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.

Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.

Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.

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percentiles and percentile ranks

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percentile of ungrouped data

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Percentiles are a measure of the relative standing of observation within a data. Percentiles divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts, and percentile scores are frequently used to report results from national standardized tests such as NAT, GAT, etc.

The pth percentile is the value Y(p) in order statistic such that p per cent of the values are less than the value Y(p) and (100-p) per cent of the values are greater Y(p). The 5th percentile is denoted by P5, the 10th by P10 and 95th by P95.

Percentiles for the ungrouped data
To calculate percentiles (a measure of the relative standing of an observation) for the ungrouped data, adopt the following procedure

Order the observation
For the mth percentile, determine the product m.n100. If m.n100 is not an integer, round it up and find the corresponding ordered value and if m.n100 is an integer, say k, then calculate the mean of the Kth and (k+1)th ordered observations.
Example: For the following height data collected from students find the 10th and 95th percentiles. 91, 89, 88, 87, 89, 91, 87, 92, 90, 98, 95, 97, 96, 100, 101, 96, 98, 99, 98, 100, 102, 99, 101, 105, 103, 107, 105, 106, 107, 112.

Solution: The ordered observations of the data are 87, 87, 88, 89, 89, 90, 91, 91, 92, 95, 96, 96, 97, 98, 98, 98, 99, 99, 100, 100, 101, 101, 102, 103, 105, 105, 106, 107, 107, 112.

P10=10×30100=3
So the 10th percentile i.e  P10 is 3rd observation in sorted data is 88, means that 10 percent of the observations in data set are less than 88.

P95=95×30100=28.5
29th observation is our 95th percentile i.e. P95=107.