Workshop

Non probability sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

Sampling is the use of a subset of the population to represent the whole population or to inform about (social) processes that are meaningful beyond the particular cases, individuals or sites studied.  Probability sampling, or random sampling, is a sampling technique in which the probability of getting any particular sample may be calculated.  Non probability sampling does not meet this criterion and, as any methodological decision, should adjust to the research question that one envisages to answer.  Non probability sampling techniques are not intended to be used to infer from the sample to the general population in statistical terms.  Instead, for example, grounded theory can be produced through iterative non-probability sampling until theoretical saturation is reached (Strauss and Corbin, 1990).

Thus, one cannot say the same on the basis of a non probability sample than on the basis of a probability sample. The grounds for drawing generalizations (e.g., propose new theory, propose policy) from studies based on non probability samples are based on the notion of "theoretical saturation" and "analytical generalization" (Yin, 2014) instead of on statistical generalization.  Researchers working with the notion of purposive sampling assert that while probability methods are suitable for large-scale studies concerned with representativeness, non-probability approaches are more suitable for in-depth qualitative research in which the focus is often to understand complex social phenomena (e.g., Marshall 1996; Small 2009)

Characteristics of action research

*Plan of action

*Dynamic process

*Sharing process

*Plan of action

*Improve practices

Review of Related Literature

        Meaning

Literature review is a comprehensive summary of of previous research on a topic.  The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, dissertations, conference proceedings and other resources which are relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory and provides context for a dissertation by identifying past research.

  It should give a theoretical base for the research and helps to determine the nature of the research.  It involves the systematic identification,  location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem.  The term is also used to describe the written component of a research plan or report that discusses the reviewed documents.

A literature review is usually written as a part of postgraduate thesis proposal or at the beginning of a dissertation.  It gives  an overview of the area of study: what has already been said on the topic; who the key writers are; what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses are;  what questions are being asked;  and what methodologies are appropriate and useful.

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Discriptive research

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH - NOTES

Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred.  For example, over time the periodic table’s description of the elements allowed scientists to explain chemical reaction and make sound prediction when elements were combined. Hence, descriptive research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used as the basis of a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the research and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the demographic segment.

Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.

Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.

Descriptive Research Methods

There are 3 distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

Observational Method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct descriptive research and both quantitative observation and qualitative observation are used in this research method.

Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on numbers and values –  it suggests “associated to, of or depicted in terms of a quantity”. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand by using a simple Net Promoter Score question.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the selection and purchasing trends of the customers. This offers a deeper insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

Case Study Method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect as they don’t have the capacity to make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the part of the researcher. The other reason why case studies are not an accurate way of conducting descriptive research is because there could be an atypical respondent in the research and describing them leads to poor generalizations and move away from external validity.

Survey Research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires, or polls. They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. In order for a survey to gather good quality data, it should have good survey questions, which should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducting online or offline which is makes it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is very large.

Examples of Descriptive Research

An example of where descriptive research can be used is if a school district that wishes to evaluate teachers attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issues. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Advantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:

Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by using specific methods like observational method, case study method and survey method. Between these 3, all major methods of data collection are covered which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even developing hypothesis of your research object.

Varied: Since the data collected is both qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. This causes data that was not planned to be collected gets tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough.

Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the natural environment of the respondent and this ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.

Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is cheap.

Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected in descriptive research represents a larger population and is robust, it is easy to make decisions on the basis of the statistical analysis of that data.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:

Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always truthful if questions are too personal or they feel that they are being “watched”. This may negate the validity of the data.

Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential bias towards the research topic or some respondents in the research, the observations then maybe considered as invalid or untrue.

Sample isn’t representative: Due to the randomness of the sample, it is very tough to validate that the sample is an accurate representation of the whole population.

No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive research only focuses on the “what” of an objective or phenomenon, it does not delve into the “why or how” and that is a limitation in learning specific causes.

CONCLUSION :

Descriptive research is used extensively in social science, psychology and educational research. It can provide a rich data set that often brings to light new knowledge or awareness that may have otherwise gone unnoticed or encountered.  It is particularly useful when it is important to gather information with disruption of the subjects or when it is not possible to test and measure large numbers of samples.  It allows researchers to observe natural behaviors without affecting them in any way. 

Idealism

Idealism is a very old philosophical thought and it has exercised a potent influence on the mind of man throughout the ages. Even in modern times when people are not inclined towards accepting any dogmatic creed or philosophy, idealism has certain attractions which appeal to the human mind and thereby exercise a great influence on human thinking. In education the influence of idealism has gone a long way to restrict some of the radical thinking and establish the worth of the eternal ideals and values of life.

The word idealism is derived from two distinct sources-the idea and the ideal. Idea means true and testified knowledge. The word ideal stands for the perfected form of an idea or ideas. An idealist does not have considerations for material values of life. A thinker who idolizes ‘Mind and Self’ is an idealist. Idealism is one of the oldest schools of philosophy.

TYPES OF IDEALISM

(a) ABSOLUTE IDEALISM

It is the one type which has found its way into educational philosophy. This lays down that the heart of reality is to be found in thought or reason. Reason is absolute; in fact it is the absolute. Being absolute, it is also one i.e., monistic. Everything, thus, is interrelated and all contradictions reconciled. Furthermore the complete cause of any single occurrence involves the whole of reality. The cosmos is great thought process, and the absolute is god thinking. Everything happens as a result of the self-willed idea i. e. absolute. The absolute is already complete, and self-realized. Nature is the medium through which the absolute progressively reveals itself in external form. Mind of man however, is a part of the absolute whole. The absolute being the whole and education being a part thereof, it may be that study of the fragment may reveal important facts of the totality.

The centralistic approach to idealism on the whole has committed this educational philosophy to the prominent importance of consciousness. Mind is ultimately spiritual, not materialistic. Human nature is to be viewed, as more than a behaving organism, responding to the stimuli of its environment. Man is too atomistic. Idealism stresses certain wholeness. Nothing happens in any part of the system that does not affect the rest. 

On religious and moral education, the definition of the absolute is unmistakably of theistic characteristics. Since the aim of education is the increasing realization of the absolute, all education appears tinged with religious significance. This includes moral education. Reason being the absolute, the universe is one of law and order. So too there is a oral law in the universe backed by the authority of the absolute. Thus lays an inescapable moral imperative on education.

(b) MODERN IDEALISM

It has given a different tune to educational philosophy. In this concept idealism more to do this idea as metal state. n this idealism might be called a philosophy of idealism. The `I` of idealism being interested for euphony. The knowledge one has of his environment is idea of it. The environment in itself cannot be known through intermediate idea of it. The environments in itself cannot be known directly. It can only be known through intermediate idea of human knower. From which the learner’s knowledge takes, therefore, is bound to be in part the product of his human way of apprehending it. Such concepts are supplied by the mind of human learning.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF IDEALISM

The fundamental principles of idealism are:

(1) TWO FORMS OF THE WHOLE WORLD

Idealism believes in two forms of the world- Spiritual world and Material world, Idealists gives more importance to spiritual world in comparison to the material world. They believe that spiritual world is real and the ultimate truth whereas the material world is transitory and moral. According to Horne- “Idealism holds that the order of the world is due to the manifestation in space and time of an eternal and spiritual reality.”

(2) IDEAS ARE MORE IMPORTANT THAN OBJECT

According to Idealists, knowledge of mind and soul can be obtained through ideas only. Hence, they have given more importance to ideas over the objects and material or later. In the words of Plato “Ideas are of the ultimate cosmic significance. They are rather the essences or archetypes which give form to cosmos. These ideas are eternal and unchanging.”

(3)IMPORTANCE OF MAN OVER NATUR

To Idealists, man is more important than material nature. It is because man can think and experience about material objects and material phenomena. Hence, the thinker or the one who experiences is more important than the object or the phenomena experienced. Man is endowed with intelligence and a sense of discrimination. Thus, he is not a slave of the environment as animals are but the moulds and transforms the environment for his own good and welfare of the society. In short, he creates his own world of virtue and his creativity achieves higher and higher levels of art in many areas.

(4)FAITH IN SPIRITUAL VALUES

According to Idealists, prime aim of life is to achieve spiritual values-Truth, beauty and goodness. These spiritual values are undying and permanent. The realization of these values is the realization of god. In the pursuit of these absolute values man rises higher and higher in the moral plane till he attains divinity. For the achievement of these spiritual values all the capacities of man are to be harnessed to the full. These capacities are- knowing, feeling and willing. 

(5)IMPORTANCE OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Idealists give much importance to the ‘self’ of the individual. Hence they insist upon the fullest development of the personality of an individual. According to them the development of personality means achievement of ‘perfection’. Plato rightly speaks that each individual has an ideal self. He tries to develop that ideal ‘self’ more and more. This self-realization is the true sense of the term. It may be noted that self-realization means knowledge of the ‘self’ or soul. This self-realization can only be achieved in society. Hence, development of social qualities is very essential for self-realization as it expresses itself in the form of love, sympathy, fellow-feeling and co-operation for the good of all and discrimination among human beings on any basis of caste, creed, sex, race or status etc. It clears the fact that Idealism advocates the concept of universal education. In short Idealism believes in the welfare of whole human community.

(6)FULL SUPPORT TO THE PRINCIPLE OF UNITY IN DIVERSITY

Idealists give full support to the principle of Unity in Diversity. They believe that is of spiritual nature. This may be called Universal Consciousness or Divinity. This underlying divine force maintains the existence and working of all entities. Idealists call this power as God, the Supreme Force which is omnipotent and omnipresent.

IDEALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Idealism prescribes certain fundamental aims of education which are directly influenced by the aims and principles of life. In this context Ross puts forth the view, “The function of education is to help us in our exploration of the ultimate universal values so that truth of the universe may become our truth and give power to our life.’’ Some of the important aims of education as laid down by idealists are given below 

(1) SELF REALIZATION.

According to idealism man is the most beautiful creation of god-His grandest work. It lays great stress on the exaltation of human personality it is self-realization The aim of education is to develop the self of the individuals higher till self-realization is achieved It is in fact making actual or real the highest potentialities of the self.

(2) UNIVERSAL EDUCATION.

Education according to idealism should be universal in nature. The universe is regarded as a thought process. Education should be based on the teaching of Universal truth from the stand-point of rationality of the Universe

(3) SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT.

Idealists give greater importance to spiritual values in comparison with material attainments. According to Rusk, “Education must enable Mankind through its culture to enter more and more fully into the spiritual realm, and also enter more and more fully into the spiritual realm, and also enlarge the boundaries of spiritual realm”.

(4)TRANSMISSION AND PROMOTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE

The aim of idealistic education is the preservation ; enrichment and transmission of culture, Education must contribute to the development of culture .It should help in enlarging the boundaries of spiritual realm

(5)CULTIVATION OF MORAL VALUES

According to idealism, man is essentially a moral being. Therefore, moral, intellectual and aesthetic aspects of his personality should be promoted. According to Dr.Prem Nath “The process of education must lead to the deepest spiritual insight and to the highest moral and spiritual insight and to the highest moral and spiritual insight and to the highest moral and spiritual conduct .”

(6) PREPARATION FOR A HOLY LIFE

Idealism prepares an individual for a holy life. Froebel says.”The object of education is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolable and hence holy life.’’

(7) DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE AND RATIONALITY

Idealism wishes that education should develop the mind fully. It makes a person rational as well. Only the highly developed mind can understand the all pervading force. The idealists believe that education must help in the full evolution of mind , the emancipation of spirit, self realization and the realization of higher values of life and to train the whole man completely and fully for manhood and not some part of man.

IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM

While developing curriculum, idealists give more importance to thought, feelings, ideals and values than to the child and his activities. They firmly hold that curriculum should be concerned with the whole humanity and its experiences. It must consist of humanities.

The curriculum should give good mental experience of all types. So cognition (knowing) affecting (feeling) and conation (striving) should find due place. Sciences and art should be taught as fully integrated. Since the main aim of education according to the philosophy of idealism is to preserve and advance the culture of human race ,so subjects like Religion, Ethics, philosophy, History, Literature etc, should be provided in the curriculum. Healthy mind is found in healthy baby only. So health, hygiene, games and sports should find an important place in the curriculum.

IDEALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Idealism has not prescribed specific methods of teaching. According to idealism, class-room is a temple of spiritual learning, a meeting place of human minds- a place for self education. For this no particular method has been suggested.However, the following methods have been advocated by different idealists:

• · Learning through reading
• · Learning through lecturing
• · Learning through discussion
• · Learning through imitation
• · Descrates employed the device of simple to complex

IDEALISM AND DISCIPLINE

Naturalism provides unrestricted freedom to the child whereas Idealism wants to keep the child under discipline. Idealists believe that there can be no spiritual development of the child without discipline. This leads to inner discipline. “The discipline is not to be imposed on pupils. The teacher has only to help them to develop self discipline and through that self knowledge”

Self-insight and self analysis are the main disciplinary factors. The main task of education is the cultivation of higher values of life through moral and religious education. It requires the teacher to present a good example and exercise lasting impact upon the pupil’s mind. A teacher is an ideal person to be emulated by this pupil.

IDEALISM AND TEACHER

Idealism assigns a special role to the teacher. It considers teacher as a spiritual guide for the child. The teacher serves as a living model for the student. He sets the environment in which education takes place. He carries the child from darkness to light. He is to guide the student towards utmost possible perfection

Idealism regards the teacher as the priest of man’s spiritual heritage. He is a co-worker with God in perfecting man. An idealist teacher is a philosopher, friend and guide. According to Gentle- A teacher is “a spiritual symbol of right conduct.” He is thus, an indispensable necessity.

According to Froebel, the school is a garden, the teacher is a cautious gardener and the child is a tender plant. The plant can grow, no doubt, without help but the good gardener sees that the plant grows to the finest possible perfection. Through teacher’s guidance the child can make his natural development into a process leading to perfection and beauty.

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